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Before modern sequencing and computational technology appeared, various biochemical techniques provided genomic information which is now being rediscovered/reinvented in various forms by bioinformaticists. In the 1950s and 1960s Chargaff presented his four " rules " on base composition : 1. The first parity rule for duplex DNA (%A=%T; %C=%G). 2. The cluster rule (significant associations of pyrimidines or purines in clusters). 3. The second parity rule, namely that the first parity rule applies, to a close approximation, to single-stranded DNA. 4. The GC rule (the GC% is species specific). The first parity rule gained instant recognition as the Watson-Crick model, …