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Even where no larger natural disturbances operate, the processes of tree growth, death, and replacement ensure that forest ecosystems are dynamic, if only at the scale of the individual. Individuals take up space and use resources; the dynamics and patch scale of the individual thus have ecosystem-wide consequences. Spruce-fir forests at their southernmost limit in eastern North America are an example of the extreme case in which dynamics occur at the scale of the individual. Beyond this narrow case, natural disturbances, such as fire and insect outbreaks, impart broader scale dynamics to most forested ecosystems. Where patches are small relative …
